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Basilius Valentinus

Basilius Valentinus

Basilius Valentinus, also known under his Anglisized name of Basil Valentine was a 15th-century alchemist. He was the Canon of the Benedictine Priory of Sankt Peter in Erfurt, Germany. As even his name cannot be corroborated, during the 18th century suggested to be Johann Thölde, also his year of birth 1394 in Mayence is uncertain. He showed that ammonia could be obtained by the action of alkalies on sal-ammoniac, and how hydrochloric acid could be produced from acidizing brine.

Bibliography

Basilius Valentinus wrote dozens important publication on alchemy in Latin and German. They have been translated in all West European languages, including English, French, and others. ; Most famous works (in Latin)
- Currus Triumphalis Antimonii (The triumphal chariot of antimony)
- Duodecim Claves (The twelve keys) ; Many other works (in Latin and German)
- Porta sophica
- The Medicine of Metals
- Of things natural and supernatural
- Of the first tincture, root and spirit of metals
- Of the great secrecy of the world, and its medicin
- Libri quattuor de particularibus septem planetarum (Of the supremacy of the seven planets)
- Experimenta chymica
- Practica
- Compendium veritatis philosophicum (German)
- Last will and testament

External links

- [http://www.crystalinks.com/basilvalentine.html Description of Valentinus and transcription of The Twelve Keys]
- [http://www.sacred-texts.com/alc/antimony.htm Transcription of Triumphal Chariot of Antimony]
- [http://www.themamundi.de/lesebuch/valentin.htm Transcription of Of the supremacy of the seven planets (German)]
- [http://www.yankeeclassic.com/miskatonic/library/stacks/alchemy/shelves/stacks-bc.html Transcription of Last will and testament] Valentinus, Basilius

15th century

As a means of recording the passage of time, the 15th century was that century which lasted from 1401 to 1500.

Events

- 1401: Timur sacks Baghdad.
- 1402: The Ottoman and Timurid Empires fought at the Battle of Ankara resulting in Timur's capture of Bayezid I. The Ottoman Empire descends into civil war until 1413.
- 1402: The conquest of the Canary Islands signals the start of the Spanish Empire.
- 1402: Sultanate of Malacca founded by Parameshwara.
- 1403: The Yongle Emperor moves the capital of China from Nanjing to Beijing.
- 1405-33: Zheng He explores the Indian Ocean.
- 1410: The Battle of Grunwald was the decisive battle of the Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War leading to the downfall of the Teutonic Knights.
- 1415: Henry the Navigator leads the conquest of Ceuta from the Moors marking the beginning of the Portuguese Empire.
- 1420-34: Hussite Wars in the wonderful Bohemia
- 1438: Pachacuti founds the Inca Empire.
- 1440s: The Golden Horde breaks up into the Siberia Khanate, the Khanate of Kazan, the Astrakhan Khanate, the Crimean Khanate, and the Great Horde.
- 1440-69: Under Moctezuma I, the Aztecs become the dominant power in Mesoamerica.
- 1453: The Fall of Constantinople marks the end of the Byzantine Empire.
- 1453: The Battle of Castillon is the last engagement of the Hundred Years' War.
- 1454-66: After defeating the Teutonic Knights in the Thirteen Years' War, Poland annexes Royal Prussia.
- 1455-85: Wars of the Roses - English civil war leads to a stronger, centralized monarchy under the Tudors.
- 1456: The Siege of Belgrade halts the Ottoman's advance into Europe.
- 1467-1615: The Sengoku period is one of civil war in Japan.
- 1469: The marriage of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella of Castile leads to the unification of Spain.
- 1474-77: Burgundy Wars between France and the Habsburgs for control of Burgundy.
- 1478: Muscovy conquers Novgorod.
- 1480: After the Great standing on the Ugra river, Muscovy is independent of the Great Horde.
- 1481: Spanish Inquisition begins.
- 1492: Boabdil's surrender of Granada marks the end of the Reconquista and Al-Andalus.
- 1493: Christopher Columbus founds Spain's first New World colony on Hispaniola.
- 1494: Spain and Portugal sign the Treaty of Tordesillas and agree to divide the World outside of Europe between themselves.
- 1494-1559: The Italian Wars lead to the downfall of the Italian city-states.

Significant people

- Joan of Arc, national heroine of France
- Christopher Columbus sails to the Americas for Spain
- Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon as the monarchs of a unified kingdom who funded the founding of the New World.
- Vasco da Gama reaches India for Portugal, creating the first maritime alternative for the Silk Road
- Filippo Brunelleschi invents one-point perspective, leads innovation in Italian architecture
- Leonardo da Vinci, inventor and painter
- Henry V, the English King who won the famous Battle of Agincourt in 1405.
- Richard III, last English King of the house of York
- Henry VII, English King founds the Tudor dynasty
- Matthias Corvinus of Hungary, renaissance ruler
- Zheng He, Chinese eunuch admiral and explorer
- Mehmet II, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and Conqueror of Costantinople
- Jan Hus, Bohemian religious thinker and reformer

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

List of 15th century inventions
- Renaissance affects philosophy, science and art.
- Age of Discovery begins.
- Rise of Modern English language from Middle English.
- Introduction of the noon bell in the Catholic world.
- Public banks
- Yongle Encyclopedia - over 22,000 volumes
- Hangul alphabet in Korea
- Scotch whisky
- Psychiatric hospitals

Decades and years

Category:15th century ko:15세기 ja:15世紀 simple:15th century th:คริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 15

Canon

Canon may mean: In religion:
- Canon law, all legislation adopted by an ecumenical council of the Catholic or Eastern Orthodox churches
- Canon (priest), a form of Christian priest
- Canon, a collection of texts accepted by a religious community as authoritative or divinely inspired, such as: :
- Biblical canon :
- Taoist canon :
- Tripitaka Other uses:
- Canon (music), a contrapuntal composition that employs a melody with one or more imitations
- Canon is another word for the Mediæval psaltery, a stringed instrument
- Canon (fiction), the body of works that are considered to be "genuine" or "official" within a certain fictional universe. In many instances, it's mistaken for 'cannon', which has of course an entirely different meaning.
- Canon Inc., a Japanese corporation that specialises in imaging and optical products.
- Literary canon, a body of literature which is widely considered to define a certain civilization, such as: :
- Western canon :
- Chinese classic texts :
- Geek canon ja:カノン ko:카논

Priory

A priory is an ecclesiastical circumscription run by a prior.

Monastic unit

Priories can be divided into two types, regular and alien. A regular priory is a monastery governed by a prior or prioress, usually Catholic. An alien priory is a priory which is dependent on a foreign mother house, and an alien priory cell was a residence of two or three monks dependent on a foreign mother house but sent to exploit a distant estate. Alien priory cells were suppressed in 1414. Originally, a priory is a secondary house created by an existing abbey, but this distinction fell out of use in late mediaeval times. Priories were generally organized as follows: The prior was the head of the priory, and although he oversaw most aspects of the running of the priory, many specific supervisory positions existed to help him manage the priory. The sub prior was essentially a deputy prior and the second in command. There could be various other lower, functional positions, depending on the size and activities of the priory, such as :
- the sacrist, second only to the prior and sub prior, who was in charge of everything holy, including services, books and relics
- a circuitor, the monk in charge of discipline
- a novice-master who supervised the novice monks
- the cellarer, who provided for the monks practical needs for daily life, such as supplies
- a librarian, who managed the books
- the cantor, who supervised (choir) music
- a chamberlain, in charge of clothing
- a kitchener, in charge of food
- a guest-master, in charge of seeing to the priory's guests
- an infirmerer, who took care of the sick and the elderly monks
- a treasurer, who supervised the priory's jewels, ornaments, and vestaments
- the almoner who managed alms distributed to the poor. The prior was elected by a majority vote of the monks. At election times the votes were all counted equally from the youngest novice up to the sub prior. Often the local bishop would endorse a candidate, however the election was left entirely up to the monks. Ken Follet's historical novel The Pillars of the Earth provides the reader with an accurate (albeit fictional) representation of priory life in 12th-centry England. The relationships between individual priory members, between neighboring priories, and between the priory & diocese are well documented.
- There exist also offices using the title prior at a higher level of an order's organization, such as a Prior provincilis, in a province of (only?) the order of Decalced Augustinians
- A special case is the ecumenical priory of the Taizé Community.

Other prior and priories

In some abbeys, there also was a prior, but as the deputy of the Abbot. Other congregations may have independent priories that depend in no way on an abbey, and may even have been founded independently. Furthermore, a priory (or priorate) can be part of a military order that is headed by a knight, styled prior but more often a warrior or administrator than a member, and usually not a clergyman (often the office is opened only to laymen).

Priory Estate

The Priory is also an area in Dudley, West Midlands. A Benedictine Priory was built in the town about 800 years ago but it has been in ruins since at least the 19th century. Priory Park was opened in the grounds of the ruins just before the Second World War and the Priory Housing Estate was built in the 1930's. The houses around the park in roads like Gervase Drive and Woodland Avenue, and the south side of Priory Road, were built for owner occupiers but most of the estate was built by the council to rehouse people from town centre slum clearences. The estate survives to this day and is part of the most deprived ward in Dudley - Castle and Priory, which also includes the Wren's Nest Estate and the area around the Castle Gate complex. Category:Religious buildings

Ammonia

Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH₃. At standard temperature and pressure ammonia is a gas. It is toxic and corrosive to some materials, and has a characteristic pungent odor. An ammonia molecule is not flat, but has the shape of a compressed tetrahedron known as a trigonal pyramid, as would be expected from VSEPR theory. This shape gives the molecule an overall dipole moment and makes it polar so that ammonia very readily dissolves in water. The nitrogen atom in the molecule has a lone electron pair, and ammonia acts as a base. In acidic or even neutral aqueous solutions, it can bond to a hydronium ion (H₃O⁺), releasing a water molecule (H₂O) to form the positively charged ammonium ion (NH₄⁺), which has the shape of a regular tetrahedron. The degree to which ammonia forms the ammonium ion depends on the pH of the solution. The main uses of ammonia are in the production of fertilizers, explosives and polymers. It is also an ingredient in certain household glass cleaners. Ammonia is found in small quantities in the atmosphere, being produced from the putrefaction of nitrogenous animal and vegetable matter. Ammonia and ammonium salts are also found in small quantities in rainwater, while ammonium chloride (sal-ammoniac) and ammonium sulfate are found in volcanic districts; crystals of ammonium bicarbonate have been found in Patagonian guano. Ammonium salts also are found distributed through all fertile soil and in seawater. Substances containing ammonia or that are similar to it are called ammoniacal.

History

Salts of ammonia have been known from very early times; thus the term Hammoniacus sal appears in the writings of Pliny, although it is not known whether the term is identical with the more modern sal-ammoniac. In the form of sal-ammoniac, ammonia was known to the alchemists as early as the 13th century, being mentioned by Albertus Magnus. It was also used by dyers in the Middle Ages in the form of fermented urine to alter the colour of vegetable dyes. In the 15th century, Basilius Valentinus showed that ammonia could be obtained by the action of alkalis on sal-ammoniac. At a later period, when sal-ammoniac was obtained by distilling the hoofs and horns of oxen and neutralizing the resulting carbonate with hydrochloric acid, the name Spirit of hartshorn was applied to ammonia. Gaseous ammonia was first isolated by Joseph Priestley in 1774 and was termed by him alkaline air. In 1777 Karl Wilhelm Scheele showed that it contained nitrogen, and Claude Louis Berthollet, in about 1785, ascertained its composition. The Haber process to produce ammonia from the nitrogen contained in the air was developed by Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch in 1909 and patented in 1910. It was first used on an industrial scale by the Germans during World War I. The ammonia was used to produce explosives to sustain their war effort.

Production

Because of its many uses, ammonia is one of the most highly-produced inorganic chemicals. Before the start of WWI most ammonia was obtained by the dry distillation of nitrogenous vegetable and animal products; by the reduction of nitrous acid and nitrites with nascent hydrogen; and also by the decomposition of ammonium salts by alkaline hydroxides or by quicklime, the salt most generally used being the chloride (sal-ammoniac) thus ::2NH₄Cl + 2CaO → CaCl₂ + Ca(OH)₂ + 2NH₃ It has also been obtained by decomposing magnesium nitride (Mg₃N₂) with water, ::Mg₃N₂ + 6H₂O → 3Mg(OH)₂ + 2NH₃ Today the Haber process is the most important method for production of ammonia. In this process, nitrogen and hydrogen gases combine directly on an iron catalyst at a pressure of 200 bar (20 MPa, 3000 lbf/in²) and a temperature of 500 °C to produce ammonia. ::N₂ + 3H₂ → 2 NH₃ Compared to older methods, the feedstocks of the Haber process are relatively inexpensive—nitrogen makes up 78% of the atmosphere, while hydrogen can be readily produced from natural gas.

Properties

Ammonia is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent smell; it is lighter than air, its density being 0.589 times that of air. It is easily liquefied and the liquid boils at -33.7 °C, and solidifies at -75 °C to a mass of white crystals. Liquid ammonia possesses strong ionizing powers (ε = 22), and solutions of salts in liquid ammonia have been much studied. Liquid ammonia has a very high standard enthalpy change of vaporization (23.35 kJ/mol, c.f. water 40.65 kJ/mol, methane 8.19 kJ/mol, phosphine 14.6 kJ/mol) and can therefore be used in laboratories in non-insulated vessels at room temperature, even though it is well above its boiling point. It is miscible with water. All the ammonia contained in an aqueous solution of the gas may be expelled by boiling. The aqueous solution of ammonia is basic. The maximum concentration of ammonia in water (a saturated solution) has a density of 0.880 g cm^-3 and is often known as '.880 Ammonia'. It does not sustain combustion, and it does not burn readily unless mixed with oxygen, when it burns with a pale yellowish-green flame. At high temperature and in the presence of a suitable catalyst, ammonia is decomposed into its constituent elements. Chlorine catches fire when passed into ammonia, forming nitrogen and hydrochloric acid; unless the ammonia is present in excess, the highly explosive nitrogen trichloride (NCl₃) is also formed. The ammonia molecule readily undergoes nitrogen inversion at normal pressures, that is to say that the nitrogen atom passes through the plane of the three hydrogen atoms as if it were an umbrella turning inside out in a strong wind. The energy barrier to this inversion is 24.7 kJ/mol in ammonia, and the resonance frequency is 23.79 GHz, corresponding to microwave radiation of a wavelength of 1.260 cm. The absorption at this frequency was the first microwave spectrum to be observed (C. E. Cleeton & N. H. Williams, 1934).

Formation of salts

One of the most characteristic properties of ammonia is its power of combining directly with acids to form salts; thus with hydrochloric acid it forms ammonium chloride (sal-ammoniac); with nitric acid, ammonium nitrate, etc. However perfectly dry ammonia will not combine with perfectly dry hydrogen chloride, moisture being necessary to bring about the reaction. ::NH₃ + HCl → NH₄Cl The salts produced by the action of ammonia on acids are known as the ammonium salts and all contain the ammonium ion (NH₄⁺).

Acidity

Although ammonia is well-known as a base, it can also act as an extremely weak acid. It is a protic substance, and is capable of dissociation into the amide (NH₂⁻) ion, for example when solid lithium nitride is added to liquid ammonia, forming a lithium amide solution: Li₃N(s)+ 2NH₃(l) → 3Li⁺(am) + 3NH₂⁻(am). This is a Bronsted-Lowry acid-base reaction in which ammonia is acting as an acid.

Formation of other compounds

Ammonia can act as a nucleophile in substitution reactions. Amines can be formed by the reaction of ammonia with alkyl halides, although the resulting –NH₂ group is also nucleophilic and secondary and tertiary amines are often formed as by-products. Using an excess of ammonia helps minimise multiple substitution, and neutralises the hydrogen halide formed. Methylamine is prepared commercially by the reaction of ammonia with chloromethane, and the reaction of ammonia with 2-bromopropanoic acid has been used to prepare racemic alanine in 70% yield. Ethanolamine is prepared by a a ring-opening reaction with ethylene oxide: the reaction is sometimes allowed to go further to produce diethanolamine and triethanolamine. Amides can be prepared by the reaction of ammonia with a number of carboxylic acid derivatives. Acyl chlorides are the most reactive, but the ammonia must be present in at least a two-fold excess to neutralise the hydrogen chloride formed. Esters and anhydrides also react with ammonia to form amides. Ammonium salts of carboxylic acids can be dehydrated to amides so long as there are no thermally sensitive groups present: temperatures of 150–200 °C are required. The hydrogen in ammonia is capable of replacement by metals, thus magnesium burns in the gas with the formation of magnesium nitride Mg₃N₂, and when the gas is passed over heated sodium or potassium, sodamide, NaNH₂, and potassamide, KNH₂, are formed. Where necessary in substitutive nomenclature, IUPAC recommendations prefer the name azane to ammonia: hence chloramine would be named chloroazane in substitutive nomenclature, not chloroammonia.

Ammonia as a ligand

Ammonia can act as a ligand in transition metal complexes. It is a pure σ-donor, in the middle of the spectrochemical series, and shows intermediate hard-soft behaviour. For historical reasons, ammonia is named ammine in the nomenclature of coordination compounds. Some notable ammine complexes include:
- Hexamminecopper(II), [Cu(NH₃)₆]²⁺, a characteristic dark blue complex formed by adding ammonia to solution of copper(II) salts.
- Diamminesilver(I), [Ag(NH₃)₂]⁺, the active species in Tollens' reagent. Formation of this complex can also help to distinguish between precipitates of the different silver halides: AgCl is soluble in dilute (2 M) ammonia solution, AgBr is only soluble in concentrated ammonia solution while AgI is insoluble in aqueous solution of ammonia. Ammine complexes of chromium(III) were known in the late 19th century, and formed the basis of Alfred Werner's theory of coordination compounds. Werner noted that only two isomers (fac- and mer-) of the complex [CrCl₃(NH₃)₃] could be formed, and concluded that the ligands must be arranged around the metal ion at the vertices of an octahedron. This has since been confirmed by X-ray crystallography. An ammine ligand bound to a metal ion is markedly more acidic than a free ammonia molecule, although deprotonation in aqueous solution is still rare. One example is the Calomel reaction, where the resulting amidomercury(II) compound is highly insoluble. ::Hg₂Cl₂ + 2NH₃ → Hg + HgCl(NH₂) + NH₄⁺ + Cl⁻

Uses

The most important single use of ammonia is in the production of nitric acid. A mixture of one part ammonia to nine parts air is passed over a platinum gauze catalyst at 850 °C, whereupon the ammonia is oxidized to nitric oxide. ::4NH₃ + 5O₂ → 4NO + 6H₂O The catalyst is essential, as the normal oxidation (or combustion) of ammonia gives dinitrogen and water: the production of nitric oxide is an example of kinetic control. As the gas mixture cools to 200–250 °C, the nitric oxide is in turn oxidized by the excess of oxygen present in the mixture, to give nitrogen dioxide. This is reacted with water to give nitric acid for use in the production of fertilizers and explosives. In addition to serving as a fertilizer ingredient, ammonia can also be used directly as a fertilizer by forming a solution with irrigation water, without additional chemical processing. This later use allows the continuous growing of nitrogen dependent crops such as maize (corn) without crop rotation but this type of use leads to poor soil health. Ammonia has thermodynamic properties that make it very well suited as a refrigerant, since it liquefies readily under pressure, and was used in virtually all refrigeration units prior to the advent of haloalkanes such as Freon. However, ammonia is a toxic irritant and its corrosiveness to any copper alloys increases the risk that an undesirable leak may develop and cause a noxious hazard. Its use in small refrigeration units has been largely replaced by haloalkanes, which are not toxic irritants and are practically not flammable. (Note: Butane and isobutane, which have very suitable thermodynamic properties for refrigerants, are extremely flammable.) Ammonia continues to be used as a refrigerant in large industrial processes such as bulk icemaking and industrial food processing. Ammonia is also useful as a component in absorption-type refrigerators, which do not use compression and expansion cycles but can exploit heat differences. Since the implication of haloalkane being major contributors to ozone depletion, ammonia is again seeing increasing use as a refrigerant. Ammonia is a primary ingredient in old-style household cleaners. It is also sometimes added to drinking water along with chlorine to form chloramine, a disinfectant. Unlike chlorine on its own, chloramine does not combine with organic (carbon containing) materials to form carcinogenic halomethanes such as chloroform.

Liquid ammonia as a solvent

:See also: Inorganic nonaqueous solvent Liquid ammonia is the best-known and most widely studied non-aqueous ionizing solvent. Its most conspicuous property is its ability to dissolve alkali metals to form highly coloured, electrically conducting solutions containing solvated electrons. Apart from these remarkable solutions, much of the chemistry in liquid ammonia can be classified by analogy with related reactions in aqueous solutions. Comparison of the physical properties of NH₃ with those of water shows that NH₃ has the lower melting point, boiling point, density, viscosity, dielectric constant and electrical conductivity; this is due at least in part to the weaker H bonding in NH₃ and the fact that such bonding cannot form cross-linked networks since each NH₃ molecule has only 1 lone-pair of electrons compared with 2 for each H₂O molecule. The ionic self-dissociation constant of liquid NH₃ at −50 °C is approx. 10^-33 mol²·l^-2.

Solubility of salts

Liquid ammonia is an ionizing solvent, although less so than water, and dissolves a range of ionic compounds including many nitrates, nitrites, cyanides and thiocyanates. Most ammonium salts are soluble, and these salts act as acids in liquid ammonia solutions. The solubility of halide salts increases from fluoride to iodide. A saturated solution of ammonium nitrate contains 0.83 mol solute per mole of ammonia, and has a vapour pressure of less than 1 bar even at 25 °C.

Solutions of metals

:See also: Solvated electron, metallic solution Liquid ammonia will dissolve the alkali metals and other electropositive metals such as Ca, Sr, Ba Eu and Yb. At low concentrations (< 0.06 mol/L), deep blue solutions are formed: these contain metal cations and solvated electrons, free electrons which are surrounded by a cage of ammonia molecules. These solutions are very useful as strong reducing agents. At higher concentrations, the solutions are metallic in appearance and in electrical conductivity. At low temperatures, the two types of solution can coexist as immiscible phases.

Redox properties of liquid ammonia

The range of thermodynamic stability of liquid ammonia solutions is very narrow, as the potential for oxidation to dinitrogen, E° (N₂ + 6NH₄⁺ + 6e⁻ 8NH₃), is only +0.04 V. In practice, both oxidation to dinitrogen and reduction to dihydrogen are slow. This is particularly true of reducing solutions: the solutions of the alkali metals mentioned above are stable for several days, slowly decomposing to the metal amide and dihydrogen. Most studies involving liquid ammonia solutions are done in reducing conditions: although oxidation of liquid ammonia is usually slow, there is still a risk of explosion, particularly if transition metal ions are present as possible catalysts.

Detection and determination

Ammonia and ammonium salts can be readily detected, in very minute traces, by the addition of Nessler's solution, which gives a distinct yellow coloration in the presence of the least trace of ammonia or ammonium salts. Sulfur sticks are burnt to detect small leaks in industrial ammonia refrigeration systems. Larger quantities can be detected by warming the salts with a caustic alkali or with quicklime, when the characteristic smell of ammonia will be at once apparent. The amount of ammonia in ammonium salts can be estimated quantitatively by distillation of the salts with sodium or potassium hydroxide, the ammonia evolved being absorbed in a known volume of standard sulfuric acid and the excess of acid then determined volumetrically; or the ammonia may be absorbed in hydrochloric acid and the ammonium chloride so formed precipitated as ammonium hexachloroplatinate, (NH₄)₂PtCl₆.

Safety precautions

Toxicity

The toxicity of ammonia solutions does not usually cause problems for humans and other mammals, as a specific mechanism exists to prevent its build-up in the bloodstream. Ammonia is converted to carbamoyl phosphate by the enzyme carbamoyl phosphate synthase, and then enters the urea cycle to be either incorporated into amino acids or excreted in the urine. However fish and amphibians lack this mechanism, as they can usually eliminate ammonia from their bodies by direct excretion. Ammonia even at dilute concentrations is highly toxic to aquatic animals, and for this reason it is classified as dangerous for the environment.

Household use

Solutions of ammonia (5–10% by weight) are used as household cleaners, particularly for glass. These solutions are irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes (respiratory and digestive tracts), and to a lesser extent the skin. They should never be mixed with chlorine-containing products, for example household bleach, as a variety of toxic and carcinogenic compounds are formed (e.g., chloramine, hydrazine).

Laboratory use of ammonia solutions

The hazards of ammonia solutions depend on the concentration: "dilute" ammonia solutions are usually 5–10% by weight (<5.62 mol/L); "concentrated" solutions are usually prepared at >25% by weight. A 25% (by weight) solution has a density of 0.907 g/cm³, and a solution which has a lower density will be more concentrated. The European Union classification of ammonia solutions is given in the table. :S-Phrases: , , , , . The ammonia vapour from concentrated ammonia solutions is severely irritating to the eyes and the respiratory tract, and these solutions should only be handled in a fume hood. Saturated ("0.880") solutions can develop a significant pressure inside a closed bottle in warm weather, and the bottle should be opened with care: this is not usually a problem for 25% ("0.900") solutions. Ammonia solutions should not be mixed with halogens, as toxic and/or explosive products are formed. Prolonged contact of ammonia solutions with silver, mercury or iodide salts can also lead to explosive products: such mixtures are often formed in qualitative analysis, and should be acidified and diluted before disposal once the test is completed.

Laboratory use of anhydrous ammonia (gas or liquid)

Anhydrous ammonia is classified as toxic (T) and dangerous for the environment (N). The gas is flammable (autoignition temperature: 651 °C) and can form explosive mixtures with air (16–25%). The permissible exposure limit (PEL) in the United States is 50 ppm (35 mg/m³), while the IDLH concentration is estimated at 300 ppm. Repeated exposure to ammonia lowers the sensitivity to the smell of the gas: normally the odour is detectable at concentrations of less than 0.5 ppm, but desensitized individuals may not detect it even at concentrations of 100 ppm. Ammonia reacts violently with the halogens, and causes the explosive polymerization of ethylene oxide. It also forms explosive compounds with compounds of gold, silver, mercury, germanium or tellurium, and with stibine. Violent reactions have also been reported with acetaldehyde, hypochlorite solutions, potassium ferricyanide and peroxides. Anhydrous ammonia corrodes copper- and zinc-containing alloys, and so brass fittings should not be used for handling the gas. Liquid ammonia can also attack rubber and certain plastics.

Reference

# Baker, H. B. (1894). J. Chem. Soc. 65: 612.

Bibliography

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External links

- [http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc04/icsc0414.htm International Chemical Safety Card 0414] (anhydrous ammonia)
- [http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc02/icsc0215.htm International Chemical Safety Card 0215] (aqueous solutions)
- [http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0028.html NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards]
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- [http://www.inrs.fr Institut national de recherche et de securite] (in French)
- [http://www.ammoniaspills.org Emergency Response to Ammonia Fertilizer Releases (Spills)] for the Minnesota Department of Agriculture
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- [http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Ammonia Computational Chemistry Wiki] Category:Nitrogen compounds Category:Hydrides Category:Bases Category:Nitrogen metabolism Category:Household chemicals Category:Refrigerants ms:Ammonia ja:アンモニア simple:Ammonia

Sal ammoniac

Sal ammoniac is a rare mineral composed of ammonium chloride, NH₄Cl. It is found around volcanic fumaroles and guano deposits. It is also the archaic name for the chemical compound ammonium chloride. Category:Halide minerals

Hydrochloric acid

The chemical substance hydrochloric acid is the aqueous (water-based) solution of hydrogen chloride (H Cl) gas. It is a strong acid, the major component of gastric acid and of wide industrial use. As a highly-corrosive liquid, hydrochloric acid should be handled only with appropriate safety precautions. Hydrochloric acid, or muriatic acid by its historical but still occasionally used name, has been an important and frequently-used chemical from early history, and was discovered by the alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan around the year 800. It was used throughout the Middle Ages by alchemists in the quest for the philosopher's stone, and later by several European scientists including Glauber, Priestley, and Davy, to help establish modern chemical knowledge. During the Industrial Revolution, it became an important industrial chemical for many applications, including the large-scale production of organic compounds, such as vinyl chloride for PVC plastic and MDI/TDI for polyurethane, and smaller-scale applications, such as production of gelatin and other ingredients in food, and leather processing. At present, production is approximately 20 million metric tonnes annually (20 Mt/a) of HCl gas.

History

Hydrochloric acid was first discovered around the year 800 by Arab-Yemeni alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), by mixing common salt with vitriol (sulfuric acid). Jabir discovered or invented many important chemicals, and wrote his findings in over 20 books, which carried his chemical knowledge of hydrochloric acid and other basic chemicals for hundreds of years. Jabir's invention of the gold-dissolving aqua regia, consisting of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid, contributed to the effort of alchemists trying to find the philosopher's stone. philosopher's stone In the Middle Ages, hydrochloric acid was known to European alchemists as spirit of salt or acidum salis. Gaseous HCl was called marine acid air. The old (pre-systematic) name muriatic acid has the same origin (muriatic means "pertaining to brine or salt"), and this name is still sometimes used. Notable production was recorded by Basilius Valentinus, the alchemist-canon of the Benedictine priory Sankt Peter in Erfurt, Germany in the 15th century. In the 17th century, Johann Rudolf Glauber from Karlstadt am Main, Germany used salt (sodium chloride) and sulfuric acid for the preparation of sodium sulfate, releasing hydrogen chloride gas. Joseph Priestley from Leeds, England prepared pure hydrogen chloride in 1772, and in 1818 Humphry Davy from Penzance, England proved that the chemical composition included hydrogen and chlorine. During the Industrial Revolution in Europe, demand for alkaline substances, such as soda ash increased, and the new industrial soda-process by Nicolas Leblanc (Issoundun, France) enabled cheap large-scale production. In the Leblanc process, salt is converted to soda ash, using sulfuric acid, limestone, and coal, releasing hydrogen chloride as a by-product. Until the Alkali Act of 1863, excess HCl was vented to the air. After the passage of the act, soda ash producers were obliged to absorb the waste gas in water, producing hydrochloric acid on an industrial scale. When early in the 20th century the Leblanc process was effectively replaced by the Solvay process without hydrochloric acid by-product, hydrochloric acid was already fully settled as an important chemical in numerous applications. The commercial interest initiated other production methods which are still used today, as described below. Today, most hydrochloric acid is made by absorbing hydrogen chloride from industrial organic compounds production. Hydrochloric acid is listed as a Table II precursor under the 1988 Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances because of its use in the production of heroin and cocaine [http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/red.pdf].

Chemistry

cocaine Hydrogen chloride (HCl) is a monoprotic acid, which can dissociate (i.e., ionize) only once to give up one H⁺ ion (a single proton). In aqueous hydrochloric acid, the H⁺ joins a water molecule to form a hydronium ion, H₃O⁺: :: HCl + H₂O → H₃O⁺ + Cl^- The other ion formed is Cl^- or chloride ion. Hydrochloric acid can therefore be used to prepare salts called chlorides, such as sodium chloride. Hydrochloric acid is considered a strong acid, since it is practically fully dissociated in water. sodium chloride Monoprotic acids have one acid dissociation constant, K_a, which indicates the level of dissociation in water. For a strong acid like HCl, K_a is large. Theoretical attempts to assign a K_a to HCl have been made; see [http://www.chembuddy.com/?left=BATE&right=dissociation_constants]. When chloride salts such as NaCl are added to aqueous HCl they have practically no effect on pH, indicating that Cl^- is an exceedingly weak conjugate base and that HCl is fully dissociated in aqueous solution. For intermediate to strong solutions of hydrochloric acid, the assumption that H⁺ molarity (a unit of concentration) equals HCl molarity is excellent, agreeing to four significant digits. Of the seven common strong acids in chemistry, all of them inorganic, hydrochloric acid is the monoprotic acid least likely to undergo an interfering oxidation-reduction reaction. It is one of the least-hazardous strong acids to handle; despite its acidity, it produces the less-reactive and non-toxic chloride ion. Intermediate-strength hydrochloric acid solutions are quite stable, maintaining their concentrations over time. These attributes, plus the fact that it is available as a pure reagent, means that hydrochloric acid makes an excellent acidifying reagent and acid titrant (for determining the amount of an unknown quantity of base in titration). Strong acid titrants are useful because they give more distinct endpoints in a titration, making the titration more precise. Hydrochloric acid is frequently used in chemical analysis and to digest samples for analysis. Concentrated hydrochloric acid will dissolve some metals to form oxidized metal chlorides and hydrogen gas. It will produce metal chlorides from basic compounds such as calcium carbonate or copper(II) oxide. It is also used as a simple acid catalyst for some chemical reactions.

Physical properties

The physical properties of hydrochloric acid, such as boiling and melting points, density, and pH depend on the concentration or molarity of HCl in the acid solution. They can range from those of water at 0% HCl to values for fuming hydrochloric acid at over 40% HCl. The reference temperature and pressure for the above table are 20°C and 1 atmosphere (101 kPa). Hydrochloric acid as the binary (two-component) mixture of HCl and H₂O has a constant-boiling azeotrope at 20.2% HCl and 108.6 °C (227 °F). There are four constant-crystallization eutectic points for hydrochloric acid, between the crystal form of HCl·H₂O (68% HCl), HCl·2H₂O (51% HCl), HCl·3H₂O (41% HCl), HCl·6H₂O (25% HCl), and of course ice (0% HCl). There is also a metastable eutectic at 24.8% between ice and the HCl·3H₂O crystallization.

Production

eutectic

Direct synthesis

The large scale production of hydrochloric acid is almost always integrated with other industrial scale chemical production. In the chlor-alkali industry, salt solution is electrolyzed producing chlorine, sodium hydroxide, and hydrogen. The pure chlorine gas can be re-combined with the hydrogen gas, forming chemically pure HCl gas. As the reaction is exothermic, the installation is called a HCl oven. :: Cl₂ + H₂ → 2HCl The resulting pure hydrogen chloride gas is absorbed in demineralized water, resulting in chemically pure hydrochloric acid.

Organic synthesis

The largest production of hydrochloric acid is integrated with the formation of chlorinated and fluorinated organic compounds, e.g., Teflon, Freon and other CFCs, chloro-acetic acid, and PVC. Often this production of hydrochloric acid is integrated with captive use of it on-site. In the chemical reactions, hydrogen atoms are replaced by chlorine atoms, whereupon the released hydrogen atom re-combines with the spare atom from the chlorine molecule, forming hydrogen chloride. Fluorination is a subsequent chlorine-replacement reaction, producing again hydrogen chloride. :: R-H + Cl₂ → R-Cl + HCl :: R-Cl + HF → R-F + HCl The resulting hydrogen chloride gas is either re-used directly, or absorbed in water, resulting in hydrochloric acid of technical or industrial grade.

Industrial market

Hydrochloric acid is produced in solutions up to 38% HCl (concentrated grade). Higher concentrations up to just over 40% are chemically possible, but the evaporation rate is then so high that storage and handling need extra precautions, such as pressure and low temperature. Bulk industrial-grade is therefore 30% to 34%, optimized for effective transport and limited product loss by HCl vapours. Solutions for household purposes, mostly cleaning, are typically 10% to 12%, with strong recommendations to dilute before use. Major producers worldwide include Dow Chemical at 2 million metric tonnes annually (2 Mt/year), calculated as HCl gas, and FMC, Georgia Gulf Corporation, Tosoh Corporation, Akzo Nobel, and Tessenderlo at 0.5 to 1.5 Mt/year each. Total world production, for comparison purposes expressed as HCl, is estimated at 20 Mt/year, with 3 Mt/year from direct synthesis, and the rest as secondary product from organic and similar syntheses. By far, most of all hydrochloric acid is consumed captively by the producer. The open world market size is estimated at 5 Mt/year.

Applications

Hydrochloric acid is a strong inorganic acid that is used in many industrial processes. The application often determines the required product quality.

Regeneration of ion exchangers

An important application of high-quality hydrochloric acid is the regeneration of ion exchange resins. Cation exchange is widely used to remove ions such as Na⁺ and Ca²⁺ from aqueous solutions, producing demineralized water. :: Na⁺ is replaced by H₃O⁺ :: Ca²⁺ is replaced by 2H₃O⁺ Ion exchangers and demineralized water are used in all chemical industries, drinking water production, and many food industries.

pH control and neutralization

A very common application of hydrochloric acid is to regulate the basicity (pH) of solutions. :: OH^- + HCl → H₂O + Cl^- In industry demanding purity (food, pharmaceutical, drinking water), high-quality hydrochloric acid is used to control the pH of process water streams. In less-demanding industry, technical-quality hydrochloric acid suffices for neutralizing waste streams and swimming pool treatment.

Pickling of steel

Pickling is an essential step in metal surface treatment, to remove rust or iron oxide scale from iron or steel before subsequent processing, such as extrusion, rolling, galvanizing, and other techniques. Technical-quality HCl at typically 18% concentration is the most commonly-used pickling agent for the pickling of carbon steel grades. :: Fe₂O₃ + Fe + 6HCl → 3FeCl₂ + 3H₂O The spent acid has long been re-used as ferrous chloride solutions, but high heavy-metal levels in the pickling liquor has decreased this practice. In recent years, the steel pickling industry has however developed hydrochloric acid regeneration processes, such as the spray roaster or the fluidised bed HCl regeneration process, which allow the recovery of HCl from spent pickling liquor. One of the most common regeneration processes is the [http://www.dependeq.com Dependeq] [http://www.astec-engineering.com ASTEC]- Process, applying the following formula: :: 4FeCl₂ + 4H₂O + O₂ → 8HCl+ 2Fe₂O₃ By this means, a closed acid loop is established. The ferric oxide by product of the regeneration process is a valuable by-product, used in a variety of secondary industries. HCl is not a common pickling agent for stainless steel grades.

Production of inorganic compounds

Numerous products can be produced with hydrochloric acid in normal acid-base reactions, resulting in inorganic compounds. These include water treatment chemicals such as iron(III) chloride and polyaluminium chloride (PAC). :: Fe₂O₃ + 6 HCl → 2 FeCl₃ + 3 H₂O Both iron(III) chloride and PAC are used as flocculation and coagulation agents in wastewater treatment, drinking water production, and paper production. Other inorganic compounds produced with hydrochloric acid include road application salt calcium chloride, nickel(II) chloride for electroplating, and zinc chloride for the galvanizing industry and battery production.

Production of organic compounds

The largest hydrochloric acid consumption is in the production of organic compounds such as vinyl chloride for PVC, and MDI and TDI for polyurethane. This is often captive use, consuming locally-produced hydrochloric acid that never actually reaches the open market. Other organic compounds produced with hydrochloric acid include bisphenol A for polycarbonate, activated carbon, and ascorbic acid, as well as numerous pharmaceutical products.

Other applications

Hydrochloric acid is a fundamental chemical, and as such it is used for a large number of small-scale applications, such as leather processing, household cleaning, and building construction. In addition, a way of stimulating oil production is by injecting hydrochloric acid into the rock formation of an oil well, dissolving a portion of the rock, and creating a large-pore structure. Oil-well acidizing is a common process in the North Sea oil production industry. Many chemical reactions involving hydrochloric acid are applied in the production of food, food ingredients, and food additives. Typical products include aspartame, fructose, citric acid, lysine, hydrolyzed protein, and gelatin. Food-grade (extra-pure) hydrochloric acid can be applied when needed for the final product.

Hydrochloric acid and living organisms

Physiology

Hydrochloric acid constitutes the majority of gastric acid, the human digestive fluid. In a complex process and at a large energetic burden, it is secreted by parietal cells (also known as oxyntic cells). These cells contain an extensive secretory network (called canaliculi) from which the HCl is secreted into the lumen of the stomach. They are part of the epithelial fundic glands (also known as oxyntic glands) in the stomach.

Pathophysiology and pathology

Safety mechanisms that prevent the damage of the epithelium of digestive tract by hydrochloric acid are the following:
- negative regulators of its release
- a thick mucus layer covering the epithelium
- sodium bicarbonate secreted by gastric epithelial cells and pancreas
- the structure of epithelium (tight junctions)
- adequate blood supply
- prostaglandins (many different effects: they stimulate mucus and bicarbonate secretion, maintain epithelial barrier integrity, enable adequate blood supply, stimulate the healing of the damaged mucous membrane) When, due to different reasons, these mechanisms fail, heartburn or peptic ulcers can develop. Drugs called proton pump inhibitors prevent the body from making excess acid in the stomach, while antacids neutralize existing acid. In some instances, not enough of hydrochloric acid gets produced in the stomach. These pathologic states are denoted by the terms hypochlorhydria and achlorhydria. Potentially they can lead to gastroenteritis.

Chemical weapons

Phosgene (COCl₂) was a common chemical warfare agent used in World War I. The main effect of phosgene results from the dissolution of the gas in the mucous membranes deep in the lung, where it is converted by hydrolysis into carbonic acid and the corrosive hydrochloric acid. The latter disrupts the alveolar-capillary membranes so that the lung becomes filled with fluid (pulmonary edema). Hydrochloric acid is also partly responsible for the harmful or blistering effects of mustard gas. In the presence of water, such as on the moist surface of the eyes or lungs, mustard gas breaks down forming hydrochloric acid.

Safety

Hydrochloric acid in high concentrations forms acidic mists. Both the mist and the solution have a corrosive effect on human tissue, potentially damaging respiratory organs, eyes, skin and intestines. Upon mixing hydrochloric acid with common oxidizing chemicals, such as bleach (NaClO) or permanganate (KMnO₄), the toxic gas chlorine is produced. To minimize the risks while working with hydrochloric acid, appropriate precautions should be taken. For example, never add water to the acid, as the water will boil; add acid to the water instead. See references for details. Dangerous goods labels for hydrochloric acid:
The following Risk and Safety Statements for labeling apply: The hazards of solutions of hydrochloric acid depend on the concentration. The following table lists the EU classification of hydrochloric acid solutions:

General safety information

- [http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/hlthef/hydrochl.html EPA Hazard Summary]
- [http://www.cc.nih.gov/cp/about_lab_med/hcl.html NIH Description and Hazard Summary]
- [http://www.jones-hamilton.com/sections/documents/HClMSDS2005_000.pdf Hydrochloric acid MSDS by Jones-Hamilton]
- [http://www.hamptonresearch.com/support/msds/2581M.pdf Hydrochloric acid MSDS by Hampton Research]
- [http://www.americanbio.com/MSDS_PDF/AB00830.pdf Hydrochloric acid MSDS by American Bioanalytical]
- [http://grover.mirc.gatech.edu/data/msds/50.html Hydrochloric acid MSDS by Georgia Institute of Technology]
- [http://www.basechemicals.com/NR/rdonlyres/AEE3F290-9238-46FF-972D-E95679E4DA93/3103/D3119_GB_aEnglishgroter25.pdf Hydrochloric acid MSDS by Akzo Nobel]

Manufacturer information

- [http://www.basechemicals.com/ProductsServices/Products/HydrochloricAcid Hydrochloric acid product information of Akzo Nobel]
- [http://tesscorpeng.tessenderlogroup.com/popup.asp?doctype=Product&id=020160083 Hydrochloric acid product information of Tessenderlo]
- [http://www.solvaychlorinatedinorganics.com/products/catalogue/0,5522,2532-_EN,00.html#PL1000028 Hydrochloric acid product information of Solvay]
- [http://www.dow.com Dow Chemical]
- [http://www.tosoh.com/EnglishHomePage/tcdiv/frtcdiv.htm Chlor-Alkali information of Tosoh]

References

- Chemicals Economics Handbook, Hydrochloric Acid, SRI International, 2001, p. 733.4000A-733.3003F
- Van Dorst, W.C.A., et al., technical product brochure Hydrochloric Acid, Akzo Nobel Base Chemicals, 2004 (public document)
- Van Dorst, W.C.A., various technical papers, Akzo Nobel Base Chemicals, 1996-2002 (not for open publication)
- Lide, David, NIST, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC Press, 61st edition, 1980-1981
- Aspen Technology, Aspen Properties, binary mixtures modelling software, calculations by Akzo Nobel Engineering, 2002-2003
- Evison D, Hinsley D, Rice P. Chemical weapons. BMJ 2002;324(7333):332-5. PMID 11834561
- Arthur C., M.D. Guyton, John E. Hall, Textbook of Medical Physiology, W.B. Saunders Company; 10th edition (August 15, 2000), ISBN 072168677X Category:Acids Category:Chlorides Category:Alchemy ko:염산 ja:塩酸

Latin

Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. It gained great importance as the formal language of the Roman Empire. All Romance languages, those being most notably Spanish, French, Portuguese, Italian, and Romanian, are descended from Latin, and many words based on Latin are found in other modern languages such as English. The Latin alphabet, derived from the Greek, remains the most widely-used alphabet in the world. It is said that 80 percent of scholarly English words are derived from Latin (in a large number of cases by way of French). Moreover, in the Western world, Latin was a lingua franca, the learned language for scientific and political affairs, for more than a thousand years, being eventually replaced by French in the 18th century and English in the late 19th. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the formal language of the Roman Catholic Church to this day, and thus the official national language of the Vatican. The Church used Latin as its primary liturgical language until the Second Vatican Council in the 1960s. Latin is also still used (drawing heavily on Greek roots) to furnish the names used in the scientific classification of living things. The modern study of Latin, along with Greek, is known as Classics.

Main features

Latin is a synthetic inflectional language: affixes (which usually encode more than one grammatical category) are attached to fixed stems to express gender, number, and case in adjectives, nouns, and pronouns, which is called declension; and person, number, tense, voice, mood, and aspect in verbs, which is called conjugation. There are five declensions (declinationes) of nouns and four conjugations of verbs. There are six noun cases: #nominative (used as the subject of the verb or the predicate nominative), #genitive (used to indicate relation or possession, often represented by the English of or the addition of s to a noun), #dative (used of the indirect object of the verb, often represented by the English to or for), #accusative (used of the direct object of the verb, or object of the preposition in some cases), #ablative (separation, source, cause, or instrument, often represented by the English by, with, from), #vocative (used of the person or thing being addressed). In addition, some nouns have a locative case used to express location (otherwise expressed by the ablative with a preposition such as in), but this survival from Proto-Indo-European is found only in the names of lakes, cities, towns, small islands, and a few other words related to locations, such as "house", "ground", and "countryside". Latin itself, being a very old language, is far closer to Proto-Indo-European than are most modern Western European languages; it has, in fact, about the same relationship with PIE as modern Italian or French has to Latin. There are six general tenses in Latin (technically they are tense/aspect/mood complexes). The indicative mood can be used with all of them. The subjunctive mood, however, has only present, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect tenses. These tenses in the subjunctive mood do not completely correlate in meaning to the tenses in the indicative. The following examples are of the first conjugation verb "laudare" ("to praise") in the indicative mood and the active voice:
Primary sequence tenses
# present (laudo, "I praise") # imperfect (laudabam, "I was praising") # future (laudabo, "I shall praise," "I will praise")
Secondary sequence tenses
# perfect (laudavi, "I praised", "I have praised") # pluperfect (laudaveram, "I had praised") # future perfect (laudavero, "I shall have praised," "I will have praised") The future perfect tense can also imply a normal future idea (like in "When I will have run...") and so may also sometimes be included in the primary sequence.
Latin and Romance
After the collapse of the Roman Empire, Latin evolved into the various Romance languages. These were for many centuries only spoken languages, Latin still being used for writing. For example, Latin was the official language of Portugal until 1296 when it was replaced by Portuguese. The Romance languages evolved from Vulgar Latin, the spoken language of common usage, which in turn evolved from an older speech which also produced the formal classical standard. Latin and Romance differ (for example) in that Romance had distinctive stress, whereas Latin had distinctive length of vowels. In Italian and Sardo logudorese, there is distinctive length of consonants and stress, in Spanish only distinctive stress, and in French even stress is no longer distinctive. Another major distinction between Romance and Latin is that all Romance languages, excluding Romanian, have lost their case endings in most words except for some pronouns. Romanian retains a direct case (nominative/accusative), an indirect case (dative/genitive), and vocative. In Italy, Latin is still compulsory in secondary schools as Liceo Classico and Liceo Scientifico which are usually attended by people who aim to the highest level of education. In Liceo Classico Ancient Greek is a compulsory subject.
Latin and English
See Latin influence in English for a more complete exposition. English grammar is independent of Latin grammar, though prescriptive grammarians in English have been heavily influenced by Latin. Attempts to make English grammar follow Latin rules — such as the prohibition against the split infinitive — have not worked successfully in regular usage. However, as many as half the words in English were derived from Latin, including many words of Greek origin first adopted by the Romans, not to mention the thousands of French, hundreds of Spanish, Portuguese and Italian words of Latin origin that have also enriched English. During the 16th and on through the 18th century English writers created huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek roots. These words were dubbed "inkhorn" or "inkpot" words (as if they had spilled from a pot of ink). Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, but some remain. Imbibe, extrapolate, dormant and inebriation are all inkhorn terms carved from Latin words. In fact, the word etymology is derived from the Greek word etymologia, meaning "true sense of the word." Latin was once taught in many of the schools in Britain with academic leanings - perhaps 25% of the total [http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/T/teachem2/thennow/]. However, the requirement for it was gradually abandoned in the professions such as the law and medicine, and then, from around the late 1960s, for admission to university. After the introduction of the Modern Language GCSE in the 1980s, it was gradually replaced by other languages, although it is now being taught by more schools along with other classical languages.
Latin education
The linguistic element of Latin courses offered in high schools or secondary schools, and in universities, is primarily geared toward an ability to translate Latin texts into modern languages, rather than using it in oral communication. As such, the skill of reading is heavily emphasized, whereas speaking and listening skills are barely touched upon. However, there is a growing movement, sometimes known as the Living Latin movement, whose supporters believe that Latin can, or should, be taught in the same way that modern "living" languages are taught, that is, as a means of both spoken and written communication. One of the most interesting aspects of such an approach is that it assists speculative insight into how many of the ancient authors spoke and incorporated sounds of the language stylistically; without understanding how the language is meant to be heard it is very difficult to identify patterns in Latin poetry. Institutions offering Living Latin instruction include the Vatican and the University of Kentucky. In Britain the Classical Association encourages this approach, and there has been something of a vogue for books describing the adventures of a mouse called Minimus. In the United States there is a thriving competitive organization for high school Latin students, the National Junior Classical League (the second-largest youth organization in the world after the Boy Scouts), backed up by the Senior Classical League for college students. Many would-be international auxiliary languages have been heavily influenced by Latin, and the moderately successful Interlingua considers itself to be the modernized and simplified version of the language (le latino moderne international e simplificate). Latin translations of modern literature such as Paddington Bear, Winnie the Pooh, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, Le Petit Prince, Max und Moritz, and The Cat in the Hat have also helped boost interest in the language.
See also

About the Latin language

- Latin grammar
- Latin spelling and pronunciation
- Latin declension
- Latin conjugation
- Latin alphabet
- List of Latin words with English derivatives
- Latin verbs with English derivatives
- Latin nouns with English derivatives
- ablative absolute
- Word order in Latin
About the Latin literary heritage

- Latin literature
- Romance languages
- Loeb Classical Library
- List of Latin phrases
- List of Latin proverbs
- Brocard
- List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names
- List of Latin place names in Europe
- Carmen Possum
Other related topics

- Roman Empire
- Internationalism
References

- Bennett, Charles E. Latin Grammar (Allyn and Bacon, Chicago, 1908)
- N. Vincent: "Latin", in The Romance Languages, M. Harris and N. Vincent, eds., (Oxford Univ. Press. 1990), ISBN 0195208293
- Waquet, Françoise, Latin, or the Empire of a Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries (Verso, 2003) ISBN 1859844022; translated from the French by John Howe.
- Wheelock, Frederic. Latin: An Introduction (Collins, 6th ed., 2005) ISBN 0060784237
External links

- [http://www.jambell.com/latin.html Latin Phrases for after dinner conversation (Thanks to Elaine Poole)]
- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=lat Ethnologue report for Latin]
- [http://forumromanum.org/literature/index.html Corpus Scriptorum Latinorum] is a comprehensive webography of Latin texts and their translations.
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ The Perseus Project] has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/resolveform?lang=Latin an interactive Latin dictionary].
- [http://lysy2.archives.nd.edu/cgi-bin/words.exe words by William whitaker] is a dictionary program online capable of looking up various word forms.
- [http://retiarius.org/ Retiarius.Org] includes a Latin text search engine.
- [http://www.nd.edu/~archives/latgramm.htm Latin-English dictionary and Latin grammar from U of Notre Dame]
- [http://latin-language.co.uk/ Latin language] History of Latin language, Latin texts with English translation and a collection of dictionaries.
- [http://augustinus.eresmas.net/scl/ Societas Circulorum Latinorum] gathers together Latin Circles all over the world.
- [http://www.learnlatin.tk LearnLatin.tk] - Free online course in Latin
- [http://www.latintests.net/ LatinTests.net] - Lets Latin learners test their grammar and vocabulary with self-checking quizzes.
- [http://thelatinlibrary.com/ The Latin Library] contains many Latin etexts
- [http://www.textkit.com/ Textkit] has Latin textbooks and etexts.
- [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Latin-english/ Latin–English Dictionary]: from Webster's Rosetta Edition.
- [http://www.language-reference.com/ Language reference] Cross-foreign-language lexicon powered by its own search engine. All cross combinations between Latin and French, German, Italian, Spanish.
- [http://comp.uark.edu/~mreynold/rhetor.html Rhetor by Gabriel Harvey] was originally published in 1577 and never again reprinted.
- [http://freewebs.com/omniamundamundis omniamundamundis] Latin hypertexts from fourteen ancient Roman authors.
- [http://www.saltspring.com/capewest/pron.htm Pronunciation of Biological Latin, Including Taxonomic Names of Plants and Animals]
- [http://www.yleradio1.fi/nuntii Nuntii Latini (News in Latin)], written and spoken (RealAudio) news in latin. Weekly review of world news in Classical Latin, the only international broadcast of its kind in the world, produced by YLE, the Finnish Broadcasting Company.
- [http://www.tranexp.com:2000/InterTran?url=http%3A%2F%2F&type=text&text=Replace%20Me&from=eng&to=ltt InterTran Latin], Translate from Latin to ENGLISH or vice versa.
- [http://www.latinvulgate.com Latin Vulgate] The Latin and English of the Old & New Testaments in parallel, along with the Complete Sayings of Jesus in parallel Latin and English. Category:Classical languages Category:Ancient languages Category:Fusional languages Category:Languages of Italy Category:Languages of Vatican City als:Latein zh-min-nan:Latin-gí ko:라틴어 ja:ラテン語 simple:Latin language th:ภาษาละติน

German language

German (German: ), is a member of the western group of Germanic languages and is one of the world's major languages. It is the language with the most native speakers in the European Union. Spoken by more than 130 million people in 38 countries of the world, German is—like English—a pluricentric language with three main centers of usage: Germany, Austria and Switzerland.

Geographic distribution

German is spoken primarily in Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, in two-thirds of Switzerland, in two-thirds of the South Tyrol province of Italy (in German, Südtirol), in the small East Cantons of Belgium, and in some border villages of the South Jutland County (in German, Nordschleswig, in Danish, Sønderjylland) of Denmark. In Luxembourg (in German, Luxemburg), as well as in the French régions of Alsace (in German, Elsass) and parts of Lorraine (in German, Lothringen), the native populations speak several German dialects, and some people also master standard German (especially in Luxembourg), although in Alsace and Lorraine French has for the most part replaced the local German dialects in the last 40 years. Some German speaking communities still survive in parts of Romania, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and above all Russia, Kazakhstan and Poland, although massive relocations to Germany in the late 1940s and 1990s have depopulated most of these communities. Outside of Europe and the former Soviet Union, the largest German speaking communities are to be found in the USA and in Brazil where millions of Germans migrated in the last 200 years; but the great majority of their descendants no longer speak German. Additionally, German speaking communities are to be found in the former German colony of Namibia, as well as in the other countries of German emigration such as Canada, Argentina, Paraguay, Chile, Peru, Venezuela (where Alemán Coloneiro developed), Thailand, and Australia. See also Plautdietsch. In the USA, the largest concentration of German speakers are in Pennsylvania (Amish, Hutterites and some Mennonites speak Pennsylvania German and Hutterite German), Texas (Texas German), North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Wisconsin and Indiana also speak dialects of German. In Brazil the largest concentrations of German speakers are in Rio Grande do Sul, where Riograndenser Hunsrückisch was developed, Santa Catarina, Paraná, and Espírito Santo). Generally, German immigrant communities in the USA have lost their mother tongue more quickly than those who moved to South America, possibly due to the fact that for Germans English is easier to learn than Portuguese or Spanish. German is the main language of about 100 million people in Europe (as of 2004), or 13.3% of all Europeans, being the most spoken language in Europe excluding Russia, above French (66.5 million speakers in Europe in 2004) and English (64.2 million speakers in Europe in 2004). German is the third most taught foreign language worldwide, also in the USA (after Spanish and French); it is the second most known foreign language in the EU (after English; see [http://europa.eu.int/comm/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_237.en.pdf]) It is one of the official languages of the European Union.

History

As a consequence of the colonisation patterns the Völkerwanderung, the routes for trade and communication (chiefly the rivers), and of physical isolation (high mountains and deep forests) very different regional dialects developed. These dialects, sometimes mutually unintelligible, were used across the Holy Roman Empire. As Germany was divided into many different states, the only force working for a unification or standardisation of German during a period of several hundred years was the general preference of writers trying to write in a way that could be understood in the largest possible area. When Martin Luther translated the Bible (the New Testament in 1521 and the Old Testament in 1534) he based his translation mainly on this already developed language, which was the most widely understood language at this time. This language was based on Eastern Upper and Eastern Central German dialects and preserved much of the grammatical system of Middle High German (unlike the spoken German dialects in Central and Upper Germany that already at that time began to lose the genitive case and the preterit tense). In the beginning, copies of the Bible had a long list for each region, which translated words unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics rejected Luther's translation in the beginning and tried to create their own Catholic standard (Gemeines Deutsch) — which, however, only differed from 'Protestant German' in some minor details. It took until the middle of the 18th century to create a standard that was widely accepted, thus ending the period of Early New High German. German used to be the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire. It indicated that the speaker was a merchant, an urbanite, not their nationality. Some cities, such as Prague (German: Prag) and Budapest (Buda, German: Ofen), were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain. Others, such as Bratislava (German: Pressburg), were originally settled during the Habsburg period and were primarily German at that time. A few cities such as Milan (German: Mailand) remained primarily non-German. However, most cities were primarily German during this time, such as Prague, Budapest, Bratislava, Zagreb (German: Agram), and Ljubljana (German: Laibach), though they were surrounded by territory that spoke other languages. Until about 1800, Standard German was almost only a written language. In this time, people in urban northern Germany, who spoke dialects very different from Standard German, lear

Basilius Valentinus

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15th century

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Canon

Priory

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Ammonia

History

Production

Properties

Formation of salts

Acidity

Formation of other compounds

Ammonia as a ligand

Uses

Liquid ammonia as a solvent

Solubility of salts

Solutions of metals

Redox properties of liquid ammonia

Detection and determination

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Toxicity

Household use

Laboratory use of ammonia solutions

Laboratory use of anhydrous ammonia (gas or liquid)

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Sal ammoniac

Hydrochloric acid

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Chemistry

Physical properties

Production

Direct synthesis

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Industrial market

Applications

Regeneration of ion exchangers

pH control and neutralization

Pickling of steel

Production of inorganic compounds

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Hydrochloric acid and living organisms

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Latin

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Latin education

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German language

Geographic distribution

History